Frequently Asked Questions

Does UH have an undergraduate degree in ethnobotany?
The University of Hawai'i is the first University in the United States to offer a BS Degree in Ethnobotany. The program of study officially began in January 2006. Undergraduate students admitted to UH may study ethnobotany in any department with faculty members interested in supporting their studies and research. Currently most ethnobotany students are in the departments of Anthropology, Biology, Botany, Geography and Hawaiian Studies. However, in order to earn the BS in Ethnobotany degree a student must declare the major and be advised by faculty in the Botany Department.


Does UH have a graduate degree in ethnobotany?
The Botany Department offers a graduate study track in ethnobotany for M.S. and Ph.D. students. The following is a partial discussion of the program possibilities at UH. 

Graduate students admitted to UH may study ethnobotany in any department with faculty members interested in supporting their studies and research. Currently most ethnobotany students are in the departments of Anthropology, Botany and Geography. Applications are separate for each department through the graduate school and admission to one does not imply admission to all.

Prior to admission to the graduate school and acceptance into one of the instructional departments, a student should contact prospective departments and faculty members in order to learn more about each faculty member. Successful students are most often those who have taken the time to explore the university courses, faculty and research opportunities with selection of one or more potential faculty advisors, prior to submission of their graduate school applications.

Expectations of a graduate program vary significantly between departments and between faculty members and graduate committees in each department. Since ethnobotany is a multi-disciplinary field, greater course work and training loads should be expected. Students usually need to complete advanced courses in both biological and social sciences as well as acquiring additional language skills.


Do I have to be a botanist to be admitted to the ethnobotany program?
No.  Students are encouraged to apply from any discipline, but students who choose to earn their ethnobotany degree through the Department of Botany, will be expected to become competent botanists.  Therefore, students entering from non-botany/biology programs will have to endure some catch-up work.  We feel that this is quite reasonable since the ethnobotany students that we are producing are qualified as botanists with additional cultural expertise.  Students with a non-botanical/biology background not wishing to take additional botany courses should consider applying to the Departments of Geography or Anthropology, where different, although equally tough expectations exist.  Students who wish to receive "an education" without becoming educated are discouraged from applying to the University of Hawaii.  Students who enjoy learning and are not intimidated by educational and experiential challenges are encouraged to apply to the University of Hawai'i.

Each ethnobotany graduate student is expected to demonstrate a set of ethnobotany track proficiencies. These are usually met through courses. The purpose of the competencies is to insure that all graduates are qualified botanists. These can be completed before admission or after, but the chances of admission and receipt of financial support do increase if the courses have been taken prior to application and admission. 

What ethnobotanical research projects have been conducted at UH?
Examples of current and recent ethnobotanical research projects conducted by students and faculty in the Department of Botany include:

Population Biology of Tricholoma matsutake in Northwestern Yunnan Provence, China

Ethnobotanical Uses of `Ilima (Sida fallax).

African and Amerindian origins of Jamaican traditional medicine.

A Comparison of Ethnobotanical Interview Techniques Used with Polynesian Healers.
Medicinal Algae of Hawai'i.

Production Potential of Marine Algae Harvested by Traditional Methods in Hawai`i.

Ethnoecological Comparison of Amerindian and African (Maroon) communities in Suriname, South America

Collection, Documentation of Location and Uses of Hawaiian Banana Varieties on the Hamakua Coast of Hawai`i.

Archaeological Examination of Hawaiian Plant Remains - Charcoal Analysis from a Salt Spray Preserved Site on Kaua`i.

Blowgun poisons of Simberut Island, Indonesia.

Theoretical Systematic Biology and Ethnobiology with Analysis of Polynesian Systems of Knowledge and Understanding.

Psychoactive Biotechnologies in Hawai'i.

Ecology and ethnoecology of Morinda citrifolia.

Growth and Production Potential of Wild Plant Species Important in Traditional and Modern Hula Practices.

An Evaluation of the Conservation Status and Harvest Sustainability of Plants used in Traditional Marshall Islands Canoe Construction.

A Transect Study of Traditional Medicinal Plants used in Three Sherpa Communities.

Traditional rationale for selection of medicinal plants in Eastern Polynesian cultures

Plants used in Traditional Obstetric Procedures in American Samoa.

Traditional Healthcare Systems of the Ririo.

Ethnopharmacology of Hawaiian remedies for cancer

Vegetation zone/ethnobotany transect studies of north Lauru Ririo/Babatana speakers.

Production of the centennial 'Kalea' canoe.

Comparative ethnopharmacology of three Pacific Island communities

Cross-cultural Comparisons of Alcoholic Beverage Production Techniques.

Students are encouraged to pursue research topics of their own interest. Although some students do conduct research on faculty projects, this is not the most common strategy.

Faculty in the Department of Botany have conducted ethnobotanical research projects on the following topics:

Archaeological Examination of Hawaiian Plant Remains - Charcoal Analysis from a Salt Spray Preserved Site on Kaua`i.

Production Potential of Marine Algae Harvested by Traditional Methods in Hawai`i.

An Ethnobotanical Field Study of Plants used by Tribes in the Central Mountains of the Island of Choiseul in the Western Solomon Islands.

Development of a Ririo Dictionary with Ethnobiological analysis of terms.

"Ethnobotany and Phytochemistry of Pacific Island Plants." as part of the University of Hawai`i, Natural Products Program: "Mechanism-Based Discovery of Anti-cancer Natural Products.

Ethics of Field Research in Ethnobotany.

Ethnobotanical Flora of Rotuma.

This is far from an exhaustive listing. Additionally, faculty members in other departments are working on related and/or different research projects.

What educational background should an ethnobotany student possess?
There is probably no single answer to this question. Perhaps a better way of asking the question is to phrase it in light of the kinds of research or future occupations that a student might consider. For each of these occupational research areas, course work could be completed after entering graduate school, but any prior appropriate courses would speed up the process.
Students who are interested in conducting successful medicinal plant studies have the greatest need for a broad educational background. These students should have at least minimum course work in the following areas prior to conducting field studies: Systematic Botany, Plant Anatomy, Human Physiology and Anatomy, Biochemistry, Organic Chemistry, Ethnography, and Medical Anthropology. Documentational and comparative projects in this area include: Cultural medicinal system studies, Epidemiological studies of non-western medicinal practices, etc. Hypothesis testing studies in this area include: Sampling and testing of biochemically active plants, Dietary health studies reviewing unusual patterns of plant consumption/distribution/or usage, etc.

Students who interested in Ethnoecology or Traditional Agriculture should have at least minimum course work in the following areas prior to conducting field studies: Ecology, Agronomics, Systematic Botany, Biochemistry, Ethnography, and Soil Science or Hydrology.

Documentational and comparative projects in this area include: Traditional fishing practices, Traditional land tenure and land management strategies, Cultivar diversity, Human impacts on ecosystems, etc. Hypothesis testing studies in this area include: Sustainable agriculture, Plant-human agonism/antagonism, Ecosystem services, etc.

Students interested in Economic Botany studies should have at least minimum course work in the following areas prior to conducting field studies: Plant Anatomy, Micro-Economics, Ethnography, and Microscopy or Plant Morphology. Documentational and comparative projects in this area include: Canoe, house, or other artifact construction studies, etc. Hypothesis testing studies in this area include: New crop/product identification and commercialization, Process improvement studies based upon traditions, etc.

Courses of study and additional skills that are highly beneficial include Cultural Anthropology, Languages and Language Skills, Geography, Botanical Taxonomy, Photography, and Wilderness Survival, etc.


Do I have to be a botanist to be admitted to the Ethnobotany Program?
No. Students are encouraged to apply from any discipline, but students who choose to earn their ethnobotany degree through the Department of Botany, will be expected to become competent botanists. Therefore, students entering from non-botany/biology programs will have to endure some catch-up work. We feel that this is quite reasonable since the ethnobotany students that we are producing are qualified as botanists with additional cultural expertise. Students with a non-botanical/biology background not wishing to take additional botany courses should consider applying to the Departments of Geography or Anthropology, where different, although equally tough expectations exist. Students who wish to receive "an education" without becoming educated are discouraged from applying to the University of Hawaii. Students who enjoy learning and are not intimidated by educational and experiential challenges are encouraged to apply to the University of Hawai'i.

Each ethnobotany graduate student is expected to complete a set of ethnobotany track proficiencies that demonstrate their skills. The purpose of the courses is to insure that all graduates are qualified botanists. These can be completed before admission or after, but the chances of admission and receipt of financial support do increase if the courses have been taken prior to application and admission. 

How may I receive a graduate application packet?
To receive a graduate application packet contact:
The Department of Botany, c/o
The Department of Anthropology, c/o Mary Tugaoen
The Department of Geography, c/o Eugene Shen

Instructions and on-line application forms are available from the Graduate School.

The University maintains an on-line version of the Course Catalog. This is well worth reviewing to see what kinds of courses are offered by the different programs and departments.

What research projects are available for students?
Although students are encouraged to develop their own research projects, some ongoing projects do need student researchers. Current examples include: a survey of edible Hawaiian marine algae; Collection, extraction, and chemical elucidation of Polynesian medicinal plants; Development of sustainable organic gardening programs in Hawaii; Conservation of Pacific canoe construction materials; and Analysis of higher plants for anti-cancer activity using mechanism based screening assays.


What is expected of a graduate student at UH?
Expectations vary between departments and between faculty members.  For example ethnobotany students in the Department of Botany conduct original research using social and biological scientific methodologies.  These students must also complete (or have previously completed) sufficient course work to be considered as a qualified botanist.  Students will learn how to carry out the necessary collateral aspects of research such as applying for research grants and securing permits, as well as the more traditional scientific activities.

M.S. students normally complete their work in two years, unless they have a substantial number of course work deficiencies.  In this case, taking these courses may extend the degree program by at least one year.  Generally, a well-prepared student will spend one year doing course work and the subsequent year doing field work and writing up the research results.  Summers are a busy time and most students are fully occupied with their field activities and participation in National and International scientific conferences.

Ph.D. students are generally expected to have completed an M.S. degree.  Occasionally,  students who have a superior background of studies, research experiences, and publications are admitted directly to the Ph.D. program.  Ph.D. students are expected to complete their program in three to five years.  This generally involves at least one year of course work and preparation followed by several years of field work, analysis and writing. 

Each graduate student is treated as an individual and is guided through the requirements and research by a graduate advisor and a committee consisting of members of the Botany Department and others who bring a broader set of expertise to the research problem.

What funding opportunities are available for ethnobotany study at UH?
Graduate student funding is available in two principal forms: teaching assistantships and research assistantships. Most of these are competitively assigned based upon prior experience, potential, demand, and availability.

Teaching assistantships in the Department of Botany are available primarily in the Departments of Botany and Biology, but students with backgrounds in other disciplines such as Chemistry are currently supported as botany graduate students with teaching assistantships in chemistry. The specifics of each teaching assistantship varies from department to department and course to course. Many provide a tuition wavier, a stipend and health benefits. Assistantships may last from one to six semesters. Assistantship salaries and benefits vary between departments and between positions. Students who apply for, and are offered a teaching assistantship, should ask for specific written details as part of their acceptance of such an offer.

Research assistantships in the Department of Botany are available to superior students with outstanding research projects. Assistantships are available through research grants of individual faculty members, therefore students seeking a research assistantship should develop contacts with faculty members working in their area of interest. Students are especially encouraged to work with faculty members to apply for their own research funding through grant applications. Admitted students may contact individual faculty members for assistance in applying for research grants. Alternatively, some national and local grants and scholarships may be applied for without support of specific faculty or university advisors.

What are some suggested readings in ethnobotany?

Recommended minimum library for ethnobotanists (books that should be owned and dog-eared):
Alexiades, M.N. 1996. Editor of Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research: A Field Manual. The New York Botanical Garden, New York.

Cotton, C.M. 1996. Ethnobotany: Principles and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England.

Greaves, T. 1994. Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples: A Source Book. Society for Applied Anthropology, Oklahoma City.

Mabberley, D. J. 1987 (1997). The Plant-Book: A portable dictionary of the vascular plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Martin, G.J. 1995. Ethnobotany: A Methods Manual. Chapman & Hall, London.

Schultes, R. E. & A. Hofmann. 1979 (1992). Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Spradley, J.P. 1980. Participant Observation. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New York.

Classics that should be read at least once and probably owned:
Anderson, E. 1952 (1967, 1997). Plants, Man and Life. Little Brown and Company, Boston.

Berlin, B. 1992. Ethnobotanical classification: Principles of categorization of plants and animals in traditional societies. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Connolly, B. & R. Anderson. 1988. First Contact. Penguin, New York.

Corner, E. J. H. 1964. The Life of Plants. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

Crosby, A. W. 1986 (1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992). Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe 900-1900. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Davis, W. 1996. One River: Explorations and Discoveries in the Amazon Rain Forest. Simon & Schuster, New York.

Davis, W. 1998. Shadows in the Sun: Travels to Landscapes of Spirit and Desire. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Diamond, J. 1997 (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Co., New York.

Hardin, G. 1968. The Tragedy of the commons. Science 162: 1243-1248.

Harlan, J. R. 1975. Crops and Man. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.

Harris, D.R. & G.C. Hillman. 1989. Editors of Foraging and Farming: The evolution of plant exploitation. Unwin Hyman, London.

Heiser, C. B., Jr. 1990. Seed to Civilization - The Story of Food Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Hoffman, A. 1983. LSD: My Problem Child. Putnam Publishing Group, New York.

Johns, T. 1990. With Bitter Herbs they shall eat it: Chemical Ecology and the Origins of Human Diet and Medicine. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.

Krieg, M. G. 1964. Green Medicine. Rand McNally, New York.

Lewis, W.H. & M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical Botany: Plants Affecting Man's Health. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Nabhan, G. P. 1989. Enduring Seeds. North Point Press, San Francisco.

Pearce, D.W. 1993. Economic values and the natural world. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

Ripinsky-Naxon, M. 1993. The Nature of Shamanism: Substance and Function of a Religious Metaphor. State University of New York Press, Albany, New York.

Sauer, J. D. 1994. Historical Geography of Crop Plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Taylor, N. 1965. Plant Drugs That Changed the World. Dodd, Mead, New York.

Werner, O. & G.M. Schoepfle. 1987. Systematic fieldwork: Ethnographic analysis and data management. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, California.

General Economic Botany (Plants and People), Introductory college course:
Baker, H.G. 1970. Plants and Civilization. 2nd Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California.

Balick, M.J. & P.A. Cox. 1996. Plants, People, and Culture: The Science of Ethnobotany. Scientific American, New York.

Heiser, C.B.Jr. 1985. Of Plants and People. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma.

Hill, A.F. 1952. Economic Botany: A Textbook of Useful Plants and Plant Products. 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Langenheim, J.H. & K.V. Thimann. 1982. Botany: Plant Biology and Its Relation to Human Affairs. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Lewington, A. 1990. Plants for People. The Natural History Museum, London.

Simpson, B.B. & M. Conner-Ogorzaly. 1995. Economic Botany: Plants in Our World., 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Tippo, O. & W.L. Stern. 1977. Humanistic Botany. W.W. Norton, New York.
Introductory Ethnobotany/Ethnobiology, Jr-Sr. college course:

Alexiades, M.N. 1996. Editor of Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research: A Field Manual. The New York Botanical Garden, New York.

Berlin, B. 1992. Ethnobotanical classification: Principles of categorization of plants and animals in traditional societies. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Bernard, H.R. 1988. Research Methods in Cultural Anthropology. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, California.

Cotton, C.M. 1996. Ethnobotany: Principles and Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England.

Etkin, N.L. 1992. Editor of Plants in indigenous medicine and diet: Biobehavioral approaches. Redgrave, Bedford Hills, New York.

Ford, R.I. 1987. Ethnobotany: Historical diversity and synthesis. in The Nature and Status of Ethnobotany edited by R.I. Ford. Anthropological Papers, pp. 33-49, No. 67. University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Gilmore, M.R. 1932. Importance of Ethno-botanical Investigation. American Anthropologist 34:320-327.

Harris, D.R. & G.C. Hillman. 1989. Editors of Foraging and Farming: The evolution of plant exploitation. Unwin Hyman, London.

Jain, S.K. 1989. Methods and approaches in ethnobotany. Society of Ethnobiology, Lucknow, India.

Johns, T. 1990. With Bitter Herbs they shall eat it: Chemical Ecology and the Origins of Human Diet and Medicine. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.

Jones, V. 1941. The nature and scope of ethnobotany. Chronica Botanica 6(10):219-221.

Martin, G.J. 1995. Ethnobotany: A Methods Manual. Chapman & Hall, London.

Norman, J. 1990. The Complete Book of Spices. Penguin, New York.

Pelto, P.J. & G.H. Pelto. 1978. Anthropological research: The structure of inquiry. Cambridge University Press, New York.

Peters, C.M. 1996. Beyond Nomenclature and Use: A Review of Ecological Methods for Ethnobotanists. pp 241-276. in Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research: A Field Manual. Edited by M.N. Alexiades. The New York Botanical Garden, New York.

Phillips, O.L. 1996. Some Quantitative Methods for Analyzing Ethnobotanical Knowledge. pp 171-197. in Selected Guidelines for Ethnobotanical Research: A Field Manual. Edited by M.N. Alexiades. The New York Botanical Garden, New York.

Posey, D.A. & W.L. Overal. 1990. Editors of Ethnobiology: Implications and applications. Proceedings of the First International Congress of Ethnobiology, Belem, Para, July 1988. Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belem.

Prance, G.T. & R.L. Carneiro. 1987. Quantitative Ethnobiology and the case for Conservation in Amazonia. Conservation Biology 1:296-301.

Prance, G.T. 1991. What is ethnobotany today? Journal of Ethnopharmacology 32:209-216.

Schultes, R.E. & S. von Reis. 1995. Editors of Ethnobotany: Evolution of a discipline. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon.

Spradley, J.P. 1980. Participant Observation. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New York.

Toledo, V.M. 1986. La etnobotanica en Latinoamerica: Viscitudes, contextos y desafios. pp. 13-33. in IV Congreso Latinoamericano de Botanica. Simposio de Etnobotanica. Perspectivas en Latinoamerica. Serie Memorias de Eventos Cientificos Colombianos. Instituto Colombiano para el Fomento de la Educacion Superior, Bogota.

Werner, O. & G.M. Schoepfle. 1987. Systematic fieldwork: Ethnographic analysis and data management. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, California.

Wickens, G.E. 1990. What is economic botany? Economic Botany 44:12-28.
Ethnoecology, specialty course:

Alcorn, J.B. 1984. Development policy, forests, and peasant farms: Reflections on Huastec-managed forests' contributions to commercial production and resource conservation. Economic Botany 38:389-396.

Alcorn, J.B. 1984. Huastec Mayan Ethnobotany. University of Texas Press, Austin.

Alcorn, J.B. 1989. An economic analysis of Huastec Mayan forest management, in Fragile Lands of Latin America, Strategies for Sustainable Development edited by J.O. Browder. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.

Alcorn, J.B. 1989. Process as resource: The traditional agricultural ideology of Bora and Huastec resource management and its implications for research. Pp 63-77 in Resource management in Amazonia. Advances in Economic Botany 7. Edited by D.A. Posey & W. Balee, The New York Botanical Garden, New York.

Altieri, M.A. & M.K. Anderson. 1986. An ecological basis for the development of alternative agricultural systems for small farmers in the Third World. Alternative Agriculture 1:30-38.

Anderson, A.B., P.H. May, & M.J. Balick. 1991. The Subsidy from Nature: Palm Forests, Peasantry and Development on an Amazonian Frontier. Columbia University Press, New York.

Anderson, A.B. & E.M. Ioris. 1992. Valuing the rain forest: Economic strategies by small scale forest extractivists in the Amazon Estuary. Human Ecology 20:337-369.

Anderson, E. 1954. Reflections on certain Honduran gardens. Landscape 4:19-23.

Anderson, J.N. 1980. Traditional home gardens in Southeast Asia: A prolegomenon for the second generation research. Pp. 441-446 in Tropical Ecology and Development. Edited by J.I. Furtado. International Society of Tropical Ecology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Anderson, J.M. & J.S.I. Ingram. 1993. Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility: A Handbook of Methods, 2nd edition. CAB International Press, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.

Balick, M.J. & R. Mendelsohn. 1992. Assessing the economic value of traditional medicines from tropical rain forests. Conservation Biology 6:128-130.

Balick, M.J., E. Elisabetsky, & S. Laird. 1995. Editors of Medicinal Resources of the Tropical Forest: Biodiversity and Its Importance to Human Health. Columbia University Press, New York.

Barrows, H.H. 1923. Geography as Human Ecology. Annals of the Association of American Geography. B:1-14.

Bates, M. 1963. Nature's Effect on and Control of Man. Pp. 100-113 in Man's Place in the Island Ecosystem. Edited by R. Fosberg. B. P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu.

Berkes, F., D. Feeny, B.J. McCay, & J.M. Acheson. 1989. The benefits of the commons. Nature 340-91-93.

Berlin, B. 1992. Ethnobotanical classification: Principles of categorization of plants and animals in traditional societies. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Bernard, H.R. 1988. Research Methods in Cultural Anthropology. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, California.

Bittenbender, H.C. 1983. The role of home gardens in rural and suburban family nutrition in the third world. Association of Women in Development Conference, Women in Development - A Decade of Experience, Washington D.C., October 14-15, 1983.

Brener-Suarez, A. 1993. Home gardens harbor rich ethnobotanical resources. The Cultivar 11(2):9-11.

Bronson, B. Roots and subsistence of the ancient Maya. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 22(3): Autumn issue.

Brosius, J.P., G.W. Lovelace, & G.G. Marten. 1986. Ethnoecology: An Approach to Understanding Traditional Agricultural Knowledge. Pp 187-198 in Traditional Agriculture in South-East Asia- A Human Ecology Perspective. Edited by G.G. Harten. Westview Press.

Bye, R.A. 1986. Medicinal plants of the Sierra Madre: Comparative study of Tarahumara and Mexican market plants. Economic Botany 40:103-124.

Caeser, D.M. 1993. The relationship of structure and function in Mayan home gardens. Senior Thesis, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA.

Caesar, D.M. 1993. Home gardens: Models of sustainable agriculture. The Cultivar 11(2):9-11.

Christiansen, S. 1975. Subsistence on Bellona Island (Mungiki): A study of the cultural ecology of a Polynesian outlier in the British Solomon Islands protectorate. Folia Geographica Danica 13:1-243.

Clarkson, J.D. 1970. Ecology and Spatial Analysis. Annals of the Association of American Geography. 60:700-716.

Conklin, H.C. 1954. An Ethnoecological Approach to Shifting Agriculture. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences Series II, 17:133-142.

Conklin, H.C. 1963. The Study of Shifting Cultivation. Studies and Monographs VI. Union Panamericana.

Cox, P.A. & T. Elmqvist. 1991. Indigenous control of tropical rainforest reserves: An alternative strategy for conservation. Ambio 20:317-321.

Cox, P.A. & T. Elmqvist. 1993. Ecocolonialism and indigenous knowledge systems: Village controlled rainforest preserves in Samoa. Pacific Conservation Biology 1:11-25.

Davis, S.H. 1990. Indigenous Views of Land and the Environment. World Bank Discussion Papers, No. 188. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Dickenson, J.C. 1972. Alternatives to monoculture in the humid tropicas of Latin America. The Professional Geographer 24(3): August 1972.

Etkin, N.J. 1994. Editor of Eating on the Wild Side. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon.

Farrington, I.S. 1985. Editor of Prehistoric Intensive Agriculture in the Tropics, Part 2. BAR International Series 232.

Fernandes, E.C.M. & P.K.R. Nair. 1986. An evaluation of the structure and function of tropical homegardens. International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) Working Paper No. 38, Nairobi, Kenya:.

Ford, R.I. 1987. Ethnobotany: Historical diversity and synthesis. in The Nature and Status of Ethnobotany edited by R.I. Ford. Anthropological Papers, pp. 33-49, No. 67. University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Franke, R.W. 1972. The Green Revolution in a Javanese Village. Ph.D. dissertation. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

Fredrich, B.E. 1969 Mexicali gardens: Species, function and arrangement in the Palacio and Carbajal. Thesis. University of California, Los Angeles, CA.

Gliessman, S.R. 1990. Editor of Agroecology: Researching the Ecological Basis for Sustainable Agriculture. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Gliessman, S.R. n.d. Resource management in traditional tropical agroecosystems in Southeast Mexico. Agricultural Sustainability in a changing world order.

Gliessman, S.R. 1988. The home garden agroecosystem: A model for developing sustainable tropical agricultural systems. Pp. 445-449 in Global Perspectives on Agroecology and Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Proceedings of the Sixth International Scientific Conference of the International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements, Volume 2. Regents of the University of Califonia, Santa Cruz, CA.

Gould, P. 1963. Man Against His Environment; A Game Theoretic Framework. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 53:290-297.

Greaves, T. 1994. Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples: A Source Book. Society for Applied Anthropology, Oklahoma City.

Grimes, A., S. Loomis, P. Jahnige, et al. 1994. Valuing the rainforest: The economic value of nontimber forest products in Ecuador. Ambio 23:405-410.

Harris, D.R. & G.C. Hillman. 1989. Editors of Foraging and Farming: The evolution of plant exploitation. Unwin Hyman, London.

Hathaway, M.J. & M. Aufmuth. 1993. Ethnic Home gardens in Santa Cruz County and San Jose, California. Senior Thesis, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA.

Helm, J. 1962. The Ecological Approach in Anthropology. American Journal of Society 67:6, May 1962.

Hough, W. 1897. The Hopi in their relation to plant environment. American Anthroplogist 20:2.

Hunn, E.S. 1990. Nch'i-Wana, The Big River: Mid-Columbia Indians and Their Land. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA.

Johns, T. 1990. With Bitter Herbs they shall eat it: Chemical Ecology and the Origins of Human Diet and Medicine. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.

Landauer, K. & M. Brazil. 1985. Editors of Tropical Home Gardens. Selected papers from and interview workshop held at the Institute of Ecology, Padjadjaran University, Bandung, Indonesia, December 2-9.

Lawrence, D.C., M. Leighton, & D.R. Peart. Availability and Extraction of Forest Products in Managed and Primary Forest around a Dayak Village in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Conservation Biology 9:76-88.

Mitchell, D.D. 1971. Gardening for Money: Land and Agriculture in Nagovisi. Ph.D. dissertation. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

Monteith, J.L. 1965. Light Distribution and Photosynthesis in Field Crops. Annals of Botany 29:17-37.

Monteith, J.L. 1966. Physical Limitations to Crop Growth. Agricultural Progress 1966 -41:9-23.

Mountjoy, D.C. & S.R. Gliessman. 1988. Traditional management of a hillside agroecosystem in Tlazcala, Mexico: An ecologically based maintenance system. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 3:3-10.

Mula, R. & B. Gayao. 1991. Urban and rural home gardens in the highlands of Northern Philippines: The case of sweet potato. Sweet Potato Cultures of Asia and South Pacific, Proceedings of the second annual UPWARD International Conference, April 2-5, 1991, Laguna, Philippines.

Nash, M. 1966. Primitive and Peasants Economic Systems. Chandler, San Francisco.

Odum, E. 1969. The Strategy of Ecosystem Development. Science 164:262-270.

Odum, H.T. 1971. Environment, Power, and Society. Wiley-Interscience, New York.

Oomen, H.A.P.C. 1971. Ecology of Human Nutrition in New Guinea: Evaluation of Subsistence Patterns. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 1:1-16.

Padoch, C. & W. de Jong. 1991. The house gardens of Santa Rosa: Diversity and variability in an Amazonian agricultural system. Economic Botany 45:1166-1175.

Padoch, C. & C. Peters. 1993. Managed forest gardens in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Pp. 167-176 in Perspectives on biodiversity: Case studies of genetic resource conservation and development. Edited by C.S. Potter, J.I. Cohen & D. Janczewski. AAAS Press, Washington, D.C.

Panoff, F. 1972. A study of Maenge relationships to domesticates. Ph.D. Dissertation, Australian National University, Camberra.

Pearce, D.W. 1993. Economic values and the natural world. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

Peters, C.M., A.HZ. Gentry, & R.O. Mendelsohn. 1989. Valuation of an Amazonian rainforest. Nature 339:655-656.

Phillips, O.L., A.H. Gentry, C. Reynel, P. Wilkin, & C. Galvez-Durand. 1994. Quantitative ethnobotany and Amazonian conservation. Conservation Biology *:225-248.

Pinedo-Vasquez, M., D. Zarin, P. Jipp, & J. Chota-Inuma. 1990. Use-values of tree species in a communal forest reserve in Northeat Peru. Conservation Biology 4:405-416.

Plotkin, M. & L. Famolare. 1992. Editors of Non-wood products from tropical rain forests. Conservation International, Washington, D.C.

Plotkin, M. & L. Famolare. 1992. Editors of Sustainable Harvest and Marketing of Rain Forest Products. Island Press, Washington D.C.

Prance, G.T., W. Balee, B.M. Boom, & R.L. Carneiro. 1987. Quantitative ethnobotany and the case for conservation in Amazonia. Conservation Biology 1:296-310.

Rappaport, R.A. 1968. Pigs for the Ancestors. Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Rappaport, R.A. 1971. The Flow of Energy in an Agricultural Society. Scientific American

Rico-Gray, V., J.G. Garcia-Franco, A. Chemas, & P. Sima. 1990. Species composition, similarity and structure of Mayan homegardens in Tixpeual and Tixcacaltuyub, Yucatan, Mexico. Economic Botany 44(4):470-87.

de Schlippe, P. 1956. Shifting Cultivation in Africa. The Zande System of Agriculture. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.

Shoffner, R.K. 1976. The Economy and Cultural Ecology of Teop: An Analysis of the Fishing, Gardening, and Cash Cropping Systems in a Melanesian Society. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Hawaii, Manoa, HI.

Spradley, J.P. 1980. Participant Observation. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New York.

Toledo, V.M. 1992. What is Ethnoecology? Origins, scope, and implications of a rising discipline. Etnoecologica 1:5-21.

Touber, L., E.M.A. Smaling, W. Andriesse, & R.T.A. Hakkeling. 1989. Inventory and Evaluation of Tropical Forest Land, Guidelines for a Common Methodology. TROPENBIOS Technical Series 4. The Tropenbos Foundation, Ede, The Netherlands.

Vayda, P. 1969. Environment and Cultural Behavior. Ecological Studies in Cultural Anthropology. American Museum Sourcebooks in Anthropology, New York.

Walujo, E.B. 1988. Les Ecosystemes Domestiques par l'Homme dans l'Ancien Royaume Insana-Timor (Indonesie). Ph.D. Dissertation, L'Universite Paris, Pierre et Marie Curie, France.

Warton, C.R. 1969. Editor of Subsistence Agriculture and Economic Development. Aldine Press, Chicago.

Ethnomedicine, specialty course:
" Alland, A. Jr. 1970. Adaptation in Cultural Evolution: An Approach to Medical Anthropology. Columbia University Press, New York.

Balick, M.J., E. Elisabetsky, & S. Laird. 1995. Editors of Medicinal Resources of the Tropical Forest: Biodiversity and Its Importance to Human Health. Columbia University Press, New York.

Balick, M.J. 1990. Ethnobotany and the identification of therapeutic agents from the rain forest. In Bioactive Compounds from Plants. Edited by D.J. Chadwick & J. Marsh. Ciba Foundation Symposium No. 154. Wiley, Chichester, UK.

Balick, M.J. & R. Mendelsohn. 1992. Assessing the economic value of traditional medicines from tropical rain forests. Conservation Biology 6:128-130.

Bernard, H.R. 1988. Research Methods in Cultural Anthropology. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, California.

Browner, C.H., B.R. Ortiz de Montellano, & A.J. Rubel. 1988. A methodology for cross-cultural ethnomedicinal research. Current Anthropology 29:681-702.

Drury, N. 1989. The elements of Shamanism. Element, Shaftsbury, England.

Efron, D.H., B. Holmstedt, & N.S. Kline. 1979. Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs. Raven Press, New York.

Emboden, W. 1979. Narcotic Plants: Hallucinogens, Stimulants, Inebriants and Hypnotics, Their Origins and Uses. Collier Books, New York.

Etkin, N.L. 1992. Editor of Plants in indigenous medicine and diet: Biobehavioral approaches. Redgrave, Bedford Hills, New York.

Etkin, N.L. 1993. Anthropological methods in ethnopharmacology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 38:93-104.

Evans, W.C. 1989. Pharmacognosy, 13th edition. Bailliere Tindall, London.

Fabrega, H. Jr. 1975. The need for an ethnomedical science. Science. 189:969-975.

Hahn, R.A. 1995. Sickness and Healing: An Anthropological Perspective. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.

Harner, M.J. 1973. Editor of Hallucinogens and Shamanism. Oxford University Press, London.

Johns, T. 1990. With Bitter Herbs they shall eat it: Chemical Ecology and the Origins of Human Diet and Medicine. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.

Lewis, W.H. & M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical Botany: Plants Affecting Man's Health. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Lewis, W.H. & M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1995. Medicinal plants as sources of new therapeutics. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 82:16-24.

Lipp, F.J. 1989. Methods for ethnopharmacological fieldwork. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 25:139-150.

Mehrotra, B.N. 1989. Collection and processing of plants for biological screening. Pp 25-37 in Methods and Approaches in Ethnobotany. Edited by S.K. Jain. Society of Ethnobotany, Lucknow, India.

Moerman, D.E. 1979. Symbols and selectivity: A statistical analysis of Native American medicinal ethnobotany. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1:111-119.

Ripinsky-Naxon, M. 1993. The Nature of Shamanism: Substance and Function of a Religious Metaphor. State University of New York Press, Albany, New York.

Samuelsson, G. 1992. Drugs of Natural Origin. Swedish Pharmaceutical Press, Stockholm.

Schultes, R.E. & A. Hofmann. 1979. Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogic Use. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Spradley, J.P. 1980. Participant Observation. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New York.

Stern, W.L. 1974. The bond between botany and medicine. Bulletin of the Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. 4:41-60.

Taylor, N. 1965. Plant Drugs That Changed the World. Dodd, Mead, New York.

Trotter, R.T. 1986. Informant consensus: a new approach for identifying potentially effective medicinal plants. Pp 91-112 in Plants in Indigenous Medicine and Diet: Biobehavioral Approaches. Edited by N.L. Etkin. Redgrave, Bedford Hills, New York.

Tyler, V.E., L.R. Brady, & J.E. Robbers. 1988. Pharmacognosy. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia.

Wagner, H. & N.R. Farnsworth. 1990. Editors of Plants and Traditional Medicine. Economic & Medicinal Plant Research, Volume 45. Academic Press, London.

Werner, O. & G.M. Schoepfle. 1987. Systematic fieldwork: Ethnographic analysis and data management. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, California.

Zethelius, M. & M.J. Balick. 1982. Modern medicine and shamanistic ritual: A case of positive synergistic response in the treatment of snakebite. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 5:181-185.

Other good references:

Bartoo, H.V. 1964. A Survey of College Courses of Economic Botany. Economic Botany 18:291-310.

Cook, F.E.M. 1995. Economic Botany Data Collection Standard. Edited by H.D.V. Prendergast. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom.


How are graduate student applications evaluated by the Department of Botany?
Graduate applications to the Department of Botany (including those for ethnobotany) are evaluated by all members of the Department. Each faculty member evaluates each applicant in three areas:

1. Potential to be a successful student. Evaluation is based upon: number, level, and type of prior courses and grades; national and other major examination scores; other evidence of prior success as a student; other evidence of future potential success as a student. Applicants are encouraged to submit any evidence that will support their case and explain any problems that may be perceived in their academic history.

2. Potential to be a successful researcher. Evaluation is based upon: suggestion of interesting research questions; laboratory courses; prior experience conducting research; prior research training/tools (e.g., computer skills, laboratory equipment skills, field equipment skills, interpersonal skills, etc.); research publications; unpublished written research reports for courses or other kinds of experiences; other evidence of prior success as a researcher; other evidence of future potential success as a researcher. Applicants are encouraged to submit any evidence that will support their case and to submit a clearly written essay outlining their primary research interests and the kinds of research they are interested in conducting after completion of their degree. For ethnobotany applicants it is worth while to discuss prior experience living/working in communities and any training in cross-cultural or intra-cultural research.

3. Potential to be a successful teacher. Evaluation is based upon: prior experience teaching courses, leading/organizing groups, etc.; prior teaching training; other evidence of prior success as a teacher; other evidence of future potential success as a teacher. Applicants are encouraged to submit any evidence that will support their case and to submit a clearly written essay outlining their primary teaching interests and the kinds of teaching they are interested in conducting after completion of their degree.

Other general areas that are considered to be important are:

- completion of botany background courses (see Do I have to be a botanist to be admitted to the ethnobotany program?)
- fluency in English and other languages
- prior scientific publication record
- evidence of good writing ability
- completion of botanical, biological, ecological, or ethnobotanical field school training

The faculty of the Department of Botany want to produce balanced scholars who can teach, conduct research, and be successful leaders in their fields of choice. The applicant's task is to prove that among all of the applicants, they are the ones who will best represent the Department prior to and after graduation.